A Plea for Climate Justice: The Rhetorical Situation in “Fallen Fruit”

In her song “Fallen Fruit”, from her 2021 album Solar Power, pop artist Lorde brings to light the heartbreaking realities of how climate change has permanently altered life for this and all future generations. She uses the song to express sentiments of frustration concerning the lack of meaningful action taken by older generations. This song effectively catches the attention of her predominantly young fanbase through unique lyrical choices as well as a deeply personal approach to the subject. Lorde’s intentional use of her music to both address climate change and criticize the actions that contributed to it is a clear example of an artistic response to a “rhetorical situation”.

As explained by Lloyd F. Bitzer, a rhetorical situation is one that holds a certain sense of urgency but also a set of limitations (5). This urgent element, also referred to as “exigence”, is often a time-sensitive issue that must somehow be addressed in an effective way by the audience as a result of the author’s rhetoric. Additionally, limitations or “constraints” in a rhetorical situation can exist in the audience’s preconceived ideas about the topic at hand or in the challenges presented by the medium through which the author delivers the rhetoric. These constraints pose unique challenges that can limit the rhetoric’s impact and the audience’s willingness to take action in regards to the exigence. The audience themselves also play a crucial role within a rhetorical situation, as they can impact the author’s choice of tone, style, or format as they bring awareness to the exigence. Each rhetorical situation presents a unique set of challenges through the countless intricacies created by the unique combination of the audience, exigence, and constraints. These three components present themselves in a unique but vivid way in the song “Fallen Fruit”.

In the rhetorical situation of this piece, the exigence can be classified as the immediate need to fully acknowledge the damage caused by climate change and redirect our actions before it progresses further. If all generations are aware of climate change and prompted to research how they can make a difference, these efforts could create a ripple effect to more sustainable practices and policies in our world. This may seem like a lofty goal, but awareness and passion for change are the crucial first steps towards action. The general population’s emotions concerning the crisis and perception of their own influence on the environment greatly affect their willingness to push for meaningful change (Hoggett 154). Once citizens realize the power their collective actions hold, the exigence can be addressed and further progress can be achieved. Lorde realizes the power of this unity among all people and attempts to heal the rift between generations that would otherwise make progress impossible. With lyrics stating, “And we will walk together… But how can I love what I know I am gonna lose?” the singer reconciles the generational gap that created a point of contentment in the song’s earlier lyrics. She ultimately extends a hand of solidarity to the older generations, implying that the only way to address this threatening exigence is through our collective effort. This approach successfully acknowledges the nuanced exigence that exists in the climate crisis.

Contrary to the song’s conclusion, which offers a feeling of unity, the earlier verses seemingly put the blame on older generations for allowing climate change to reach the irreversible level that it has. Because Lorde’s audience widely consists of the young people within her fanbase, the lyrics “To the ones who came before us… We had no idea the dreams we had were far too big” serve as an unexpected blast aimed at older generations for their lack of action on this issue. This accusation restricts her already limited audience even further by ostracizing the older listeners and creating in them a feeling of reluctance to receive its message. This limiting idea is also continually re-established in the main hook of the song which states, “You’ll leave us dancing on the fallen fruit”. However, Lorde approaches the exigence not from an activist’s perspective, but from an artist’s, letting personal sentiments take precedence over factual data. This overtly emotional plea, in a way, draws the remaining audience in nearer to the cause, which is arguably more effective in inciting change. The inescapability of climate change effects have had a significant impact on the mental wellbeing of the world’s population, which has, in turn, created a psychological barrier that prevents many from acknowledging it any further (Clayton). This continued expression of fear found in lyrics such as “We’ll disappear in the cover of the rain” creates a sense of relatability and drives listeners to dig deeper into the situation as a whole. The audience, while difficult to clearly define, is connected by the personal impact of this song and the desire to make a difference as a result.

A musical format poses many unique constraints within the deliverance of this rhetorical situation. While more people than ever have access to new music through today’s technology, this factor creates a wider platform for the constant stream of new content online through sites such as Spotify, Pandora, and YouTube, to name only a few. With the innumerable outlets available for new media, certain works inevitably get lost in the overwhelming shuffle. Additionally, while Lorde is a relatively popular artist, this song especially would likely not be heard on a radio station, which reduces its potential audience significantly. As far as preconceived notions within the audience, many citizens today are confident that climate change caused by human activity does not exist at all. On the flip side, many people acknowledge that climate change exists, but simply refuse to believe that the actions and habits of humans influence the condition of the environment  (Hoggett 196). With these skeptical attitudes being so common within our communities, Lorde’s audience is therefore limited only to people who are truly willing to listen and understand all aspects of the climate crisis. Progress is continually being made in this area, however, as “surveys show that awareness and self-reported knowledge about climate change have been rising over the last three decades” (Clayton). As the conversation surrounding environmental issues continues to progress, the potential audience for this song and this issue will grow as well. These various constraints, nonetheless, certainly restrict the song’s ability to raise meaningful awareness of the exigence. 

Although a somewhat unconventional approach to environmental activism, Lorde’s method is arguably effective, both in its format and its accessibility to the available audience. Historically speaking, music’s expressive capabilities have allowed artists to capture the emotions of their audience and direct their attention to the exigence. More specifically, the use of music to address environmental issues can even be traced back to 1963, when indigenous songwriter Peter La Farge alerted listeners to the disasters the natural world would face in his album As Long as the Grass Shall Grow (Currin). A pattern then emerged when Depeche Mode addressed environmental justice in their 1983 song  “The Landscape Is Changing”, and Dave Matthews took a similar approach in 1993 with “One Sweet World” (Currin). Clearly, there is value in the unique ability musicians have to guide the public’s consciousness towards an issue by creating works that express their own ideas or anxieties surrounding it. The personal connections created by these artists stir up a greater sense of shared responsibility within the global audience, especially in regards to environmental issues. Because of the emotional resonance that can be achieved through music, Lorde’s song offers a deep emotional appeal that could be very effective in encouraging the audience to participate in addressing the exigence. 

The constraints created by the varying beliefs people have regarding climate change, however, greatly limit the impact of this work as a response to a rhetorical situation. Oftentimes, though, when music carries a political message that could be viewed as polarizing, it is useful in creating an emotional connection and a sense of community between the artist and their listeners (Grant). These shared ideas about the world have the ability to unite people from many different communities through their shared passion towards a specific cause. The presence of such strong messages in music may be off-putting to those with different viewpoints, but it brings those willing to take action closer to the cause by creating a personal connection and sense of community. While the song may not reach the widest audience possible, that does not diminish the potential impact the available audience can have on the situation at hand within their own communities.

Lorde’s own perspective as an artist adds potential constraints and further nuance to her delivery of this song. The singer is from New Zealand, where climate change is widely taken much more seriously than in the United States and the countless other countries in which her fans reside. New Zealand even recently became the first nation in the world to require by law that its financial institutions make official reports on their environmental impacts (“NZ to launch”). Lorde’s own perspective on the climate crisis was likely impacted by the ongoing dialogue surrounding it in her home country, which likely motivated her to address this situation in her own work. Although she likely expected pushback from people who disagree with the sentiments she expresses in “Fallen Fruit”, Lorde’s fanbase primarily consists of young people who generally share her more liberal views on issues such as climate change. With this in mind, the singer likely expected she would be met with support from young fans who likely share a similar perspective on the way older generations have contributed to this crisis over time. Because of this shared ideology, the available audience is more willing to connect with and fully absorb the song’s message. By sharing her personal ideas surrounding the subject, including the negative feelings surrounding it, Lorde has carved out a niche for an audience whose beliefs more or less align with her own.

Lorde’s stylistic choices within “Fallen Fruit” also greatly shape the overall impact of the song on its audience. Prior to the album Solar Power, Lorde’s musical style could be described as a polished, electronic sound. With “Fallen Fruit” and the other songs on the album, however, she took on an entirely different creative approach. Acoustic instruments and drums have a much larger presence in these songs, creating a more natural and grounded musical atmosphere. This earthy quality found within the instrumental backing lends itself to the overall theme surrounding the natural world’s majesty, which ties into the exigence of the climate crisis. This use of auditory tools and cues help establish a more clear purpose for the rhetoric as a whole. These uncharacteristic creative choices help the situation stand out in a more authentic way and allow Lorde to deliver the exigence more effectively.

Through the use of powerful lyrical choices and unapologetic emotional honesty, Lorde effectively brings to light the rhetorical situation surrounding climate change in “Fallen Fruit”. As its effects continue to worsen each year, the exigence brought on by this situation calls for immediate action from people across all generations. Certain constraints limit the audience’s ability to wholeheartedly accept the song’s message, but nonetheless, a dedicated audience exists, ready to fully acknowledge the exigence. This song serves as a clear example of one of the countless ways in which a rhetorical situation may be addressed, both creatively and effectively. 

Word Count: 1915

Works Cited

Bitzer, LLoyd F. “The Rhetorical Situation.” Philosophy & Rhetoric, Vol. 25, 1992, pp. 1-14.

Clayton, Susan, and Christie Manning. Psychology and Climate Change: Human Perceptions,

Impacts, and Responses. Elsevier Science & Technology, 2018.

Currin, Grayson Haven. “Music For Our Emergency.” NPR. 5 Dec. 2019. 

www.npr.org/2019/12/05/784818349/songs-our-emergency-how-music-

approaching-climate-change-crisis. Accessed 8 Oct. 2021.

Grant, Kristin Westcott. “Political Activism and Music in 2019.” Forbes. 16 Jan. 2020. 

www.forbes.com/sites/kristinwestcottgrant/2020/01/16/political-activism-and-music-in-

2019. Accessed 9 Oct. 2021.

Hoggett, Paul. Climate Psychology : on Indifference to Disaster. Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.

“NZ to launch world-first climate change rules”. BBC. 14 Apr. 2021.

www.bbc.com/news/business-56728381. Accessed 9 Oct. 2021.

Enough is Enough: TIME Magazine’s Response to a Rhetorical Situation

On Valentine’s Day of 2018, a shooter entered Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida and took the lives of seventeen people. The nation reacted in horror as yet another instance of gun violence in schools was stamped in the history books of America. But as the community of Parkland and the rest of the country mourned the loss of life, a sense of urgency and responsibility to prevent another devastating school shooting began to gain traction. This was felt most strongly among the witnesses of the shooting: Parkland’s own students. These students spear-headed a nation-wide (and arguably world-wide) movement known as March for Our Lives in an effort to halt gun violence in the United States and did so with immense bravery and passion. TIME Magazine best captured this movement when it featured five leaders of March for Our Lives on its cover of March 2018, with “ENOUGH.” plastered in bold lettering across the foreground. With this simple yet profound cover, TIME Magazine utilizes various aspects of rhetoric, including visual and textual elements, to effectively address the issue of gun violence in schools across the country. More specifically, TIME Magazine appropriately responds to the “rhetorical situation.”

As best put by American rhetorician Lloyd F. Bitzer, a rhetorical situation is defined as a “natural context of persons, events, objects, relations, and an exigence which strongly invites utterance” (4). In short, a rhetorical situation is a specific occasion that requires an appropriate rhetorical response. It should be noted that a rhetorical situation consists of three elements: exigence, audience, and constraint. Firstly, Bitzer explains that exigence is the issue that prompts the rhetorical response (6). Secondly, in terms of a rhetorical situation, Bitzer defines audience as people who are “capable of being influenced” by the rhetoric and then can act as “mediators of change” (7). Lastly, the constraints of a situation include anything that has the “power to constrain decision and action” that would be necessary to mediate the exigence (8). Constraint can exist in a rhetorical situation in various forms, from a reader’s personal beliefs to the medium in which a text is presented. Additionally, constraints can also stem from the rhetor themself. To fully comprehend the rhetorical situation presented by TIME Magazine, it is essential to understand the three fundamentals of exigence, audience, and constraint. 

In TIME Magazine’s rhetorical situation, the exigence is the need to address the issue of gun violence in the wake of the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting. It is also important to acknowledge the backdrop of this situation, as the United States has been afflicted by a history of deaths as a result of gun violence. According to the book When Students Protest: Secondary and High Schools, more than thirty thousand cases of gun-related deaths occur in the United States annually (Bessant and Lohmeyer 39). With this context in mind, the TIME Magazine cover brings attention to the mounting calls of young students, particularly those of the Parkland students of the March for Our Lives organization, to restrict the usage of assault weapons in the United States. As best explained by the March for Our Lives website, the intention is to put a complete end to the unnecessary deaths of students due to gun violence and to create a world in which the country is “free from gun violence in all of its forms” (“How We Save Lives”). The exigence in this situation is rhetorical because if enough people demanded stricter gun reform across the country, politicians and lawmakers would be potentially more inclined to deliver policies that would ensure gun safety. In turn, this would create less occurrences of shootings, particularly in school settings. The fact that the exigence is capable of being modified is fitting of Bitzer’s description of exigence, as well. 

The rhetorical audience in this circumstance is the many readers of TIME Magazine across America who consume this text in either a digital or print form. The audience can also be classified as rhetorical because the readers are capable of being influenced and being mediators of change in the push for gun control. It is important to note the demographics when considering the audience, as well. According to a media bias evaluation by website All Sides, TIME Magazine is a left-leaning publication (“Time Magazine”). Therefore, one can assume that the primary base of TIME’s audience holds more democratic beliefs. Furthermore, TIME magazine traditionally has a generally older audience. According to a study conducted in 2016, the average age of a reader of this publication was fifty years old (Gaille). However, with the popularization of digital media in recent years, the magazine has become accessible to those of younger generations. A 2017 survey found that TIME was the second-most read or subscribed magazine among readers aged thirteen to thirty-five (“What Magazines Are Millennials & Gen Z Actually Reading?”). These demographics are crucial in understanding the audience because it impacts how receptive an audience member will be to receiving the message that TIME Magazine is attempting to communicate. 

The constraints of this situation include the audience demographics, the medium of the text, and the knowledge that is required to fully comprehend the text. Firstly, the audience can be considered a constraint because of its previously mentioned age and political demographics. Because TIME readers are more likely to be liberal, the magazine is able to publish content that a more conservative audience would be less accepting of. In this case, stricter gun control is a polarizing issue that conservatives are typically not in favor of. In contrast, liberals tend to support the passing of more restrictive gun laws. Consequently, TIME Magazine has the ability to comfortably print a cover with such a strong statement against gun use because they are aware that their message will most likely register with its left-leaning audience and that their rhetoric will not fall upon deaf ears. Furthermore, it is important to observe the ages of TIME Magazine’s audience as a constraint. As stated beforehand, the ages of TIME’s readers vary, with most of its print readers being older and its digital readers being younger. In this situation, it can be said that a younger audience will most likely connect with the rhetoric of the magazine cover because it is centered around the issue of gun violence in schools. With this in mind, an older audience may not be as understanding of the goals of the younger population in regard to curbing gun accessibility. 

The medium of the text can be considered a constraint, as it is in the form of a magazine cover. Due to the expansion of digital media, one could argue that print magazines are in decline and are not as widespread. As a result, this potentially constrains the accessibility of this text, especially in print form, among its target audience. However, with the popularization of digital publications comes greater availability to media across online platforms. TIME Magazine happens to fall into this category, as the magazine has an online website featuring its articles and cover stories. In turn, the audience is able to more easily access its content, including the March 2018 cover. 

In addition to the audience demographics and the text’s medium, the knowledge necessary to understand the text could be considered a constraint because the text is responding to an incredibly layered, multifaceted situation that requires contextual information. While this cover is addressing the shooting that occurred at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School, it is also taking into account the preceding cases of gun violence that have plagued the country. According to the Sandy Hook Promise, there have been 1,316 school shootings in the United States since the year of 1970 (“16 Facts About Gun Violence and School Shootings”). Without understanding the context of school shootings in the history of the United States, one cannot not understand the urgency of the text’s message. Moreover, it is essential to be aware of who the figures featured on the cover of the magazine are: Emma González, David Hogg, Cameron Kasky, Alex Wind, and Jaclyn Corin. The audience simply cannot interpret the significance of this TIME Magazine cover without having the previous knowledge that these five students were witnesses to the Parkland shooting. It is also vital for the audience to know that the students are leaders of the March for Our Lives movement and are strong supporters of gun control and reform. With these pieces of information, the audience can entirely register the text’s rhetoric and the gravity of the single word emboldened on the magazine’s cover: “ENOUGH.”  

With all the exigence, audience, and constraints taken into account, one is able to more adequately evaluate the text’s overall effectiveness in its endeavor to respond to the rhetorical situation. This text can be considered appropriate for the situation because it tactfully utilizes numerous rhetorical elements and strategies to respond to the exigence, appeal to its audience, and utilizes its constraints. For instance, TIME Magazine applies multiple modes of communication in its text that enhance its efficacy. Explained by literary scholars at the New London Group, modes of communication are deliberate aspects of a text that exist to skillfully convey a message to an audience (Ball, et al. 14). Of the five modes of communication (visual, spatial, aural, gestural, linguistic), TIME’s 2018 cover best utilizes the visual and gestural modes of communication. Visually, the magazine cover is simple in its composition. It features the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School student-activists, the iconic TIME lettering in the background, and “ENOUGH.” in bold print in the foreground. However, this uncomplicated design is incredibly impactful because it is direct and blunt; the reader can immediately grasp the intended response of the magazine cover. The fact that the word “ENOUGH” is in bold across the front of the cover also adds to its unambiguous nature because it clearly communicates the text’s message. Finally, the famous TIME Magazine logo is a visual aid in this situation because it adds a layer of credibility, since TIME is a publication known across the globe for its reporting and dialogue on current events. As for the gestural mode of communication (gestures, expressions, etc.), the cover expresses its message primarily through the body language and facial expressions of the Parkland activists. All five of the students in the photograph have a serious, somber look about them as they stare directly into the lens of the camera. In particular, the body language of Emma Gonzáles (front) is also incredibly telling, as her arms are crossed in front of her body to convey a no-nonsense attitude. These gestural elements are an integral part in the overall function of the rhetorical response because they evoke feelings in the audience and appeal to pathos, which in turn creates an investment in the response that TIME is attempting to impart regarding the issue of gun control. On the whole, TIME Magazine’s cover is a fitting response to the situation because it incorporates powerful rhetorical elements that directly address the exigence and the audience while utilizing constraints.

Though gun violence in schools is a heavy, multilayered topic, TIME Magazine’s cover expertly brings the issue to the forefront with a call to action. Using the three components of the rhetorical situation (exigence, audience, and constraints), TIME is able to directly respond to the national matter regarding gun violence and gun control and to appeal to its more liberal audience. Though limited by certain factors, such as the convoluted context required to understand the situation, the magazine also makes use of its constraints. Additionally, the visual and gestural modes of communication featured on the magazine cover reinforces the overall strength of the rhetorical response through layout, composition, and human expression. The TIME Magazine cover of March 2018 is incredibly impactful not only in the rhetorical sense, but in its greater significance in the context of the United States’ history. The cover powerfully communicated the urgent need for substantial change in the gun laws of the country with a single word: enough.

Works Cited

Ball, Cheryl E., and Kristin L. Arola. “What Are Multimodal Projects?” Writer/Designer, edited by Jennifer Sheppard, Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2018, p. 14. Accessed 7 Oct. 2021.

Bessant, Judith, and Ben A. Lohmeyer. When Students Protest: Secondary and High Schools, Rowman & Littlefield, 2021, p. 39, books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=zi89EAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA145&dq=goals+of+the+march+for+our+lives&ots=IhfNmeiETr&sig=fu1KoRTbVRc_EqVrpRaeLd3D1V4#v=onepage&q=goals%20of%20the%20march%20for%20our%20lives&f=false. Accessed 6 Oct. 2021.

Bitzer, Lloyd F. “The Rhetorical Situation.” Philosophy & Rhetoric, vol. 25, 1992, pp. 4, 6-8. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40237697. Accessed 5 October 2021.

Gaille, Brandon. “43 Distressing Time Magazine Demographics.” BrandonGaille.com, 14 Jan. 2017, brandongaille.com/43-distressing-time-magazine-demographics/. Accessed 6 Oct. 2021.

“How We Save Lives.” March For Our Lives, March Four Our Lives, 19 Aug. 2021, marchforourlives.com/policy/. Accessed 6 Oct. 2021.

“What Magazines Are Millennials & Gen Z Actually Reading?” YPulse, YPulse, 16 Oct. 2017, www.ypulse.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/What_Magazines_Are_Millennials_Gen_Z_Actually_Reading_10.16.2017.pdf. Accessed 14 Oct. 2021.

“Time Magazine.” AllSides, AllSides.com, 1 Mar. 2021, www.allsides.com/news-source/time-magazine-news-media-bias. Accessed 6 Oct. 2021. 

“16 Facts About Gun Violence and School Shootings.” Sandy Hook Promise, Sandy Hook Promise, 9 Sept. 2021, www.sandyhookpromise.org/gun-violence/16-facts-about-gun-violence-and-school-shootings/. Accessed 14 Oct. 2021.

As the Civil Rights movement of the 1950’s and 1960’s unfolded, Martin Luther King Jr. had, perhaps, the most encompassing and personal rhetorical situation to face in American history. In Letter From Birmingham Jail, Martin Luther King responds to the subjectivity of law and the issue he paramounts by using precise and impactful rhetoric from inside of his jail cell. While this fight had been raging for nearly 10 years, the release in 1963 was shortly followed  by the Civil Rights Act in 1964.              

Martin Luther leading peaceful Birmingham protest, AP News

Lloyd Bitzer describes rhetorical situation as, “a complex of persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an actual or potential exigence which can be  completely or partially removed if discourse, introduced into the situation, can so constrain human decision or action to bring about the significant modification of the exigence” (6). In sum, all rhetoric has an external situation in which it is responding to. Analysing a rhetorical situation clarifies why a text was created, the purpose in which it was written, and why the author made specific choices while writing it. There are three main considerations to make while analysing a rhetorical situation: the constraints, the exigence, and the audience. Constraints bring light to the obstacles this rhetoric may face, whether it be social, political, economical, etc. and may encompass the audience, as seen while analysing Letter From Birmingham Jail. The audience of a rhetorical piece will shape the rhetoric the author uses in order to appeal, brazen, or educate whoever is exposed. Lastly, the exigence of a rhetorical piece is the external issue, situation, or event in which the rhetoric is responding to. All of these factors influence each other to shape rhetoric, which Bitzer describes as, “pragmatic; it comes into existence for the sake of something beyond itself” (3), with Martin Luther King’s Letter From Birmingham Jail being a shining example. 

In Letter From Birmingham Jail, the exigence is the continued condemnation, segregation, and prejudice afflicted against African Americans since the emancipation of the slaves in 1863. However, the racial divide was legislated in 1877 with the implementation of Jim Crow laws, which lasted until 1950. While the Civil Rights movement superseded the dismantling of Jim Crow, the social ideologies and lackadaisical legislature behind anti-black prejudice continued to rack the country far into the 1960’s. King was the figurehead of the Civil Rights movement, infamous for his “I Have a Dream” speech and substantially impactful rhetoric promoting social and political change, peaceful indignation, and calls to awareness. Martin Luther found himself arrested on the twelfth of April 1963 after leading a peaceful protest throughout Birmingham, Alabama “after he defied a state court’s injunction and led a march of black protesters without a permit, urging an Easter boycott of white-owned stores” (Jr., Martin Luther King). The eight clergymen in Birmingham released a public statement of caution regarding the protesters actions as “unwise and untimely” (King 1), to which Martin’s letter is a direct response. This protest, his subsequent arrest, and the clergymen’s public statement ostensibly make up the rhetorical exigence, but it truly stems from a much larger and dangerous situation at hand: the overwhelming state of anti-black prejudice spread socially, systematically, and legislatively in America since the country’s implementation of slavery in Jamestown, 1619. This exigence is rhetorical because it can be improved if enough people are socially cognizant, whether that be in legislature or the streets of Birmingham, through creation and enforcement of equitable laws and social attitudes. These circumstances lead us to our next rhetorical focus: audience. Who was he truly writing for?

The audience of Letter From Birmingham Jail was initially the eight clergymen of Birmingham, all white and in positions of religious leadership. However, in the months that followed, King’s powerful words were distributed to the public through civil right’s committees, the press, and was even read in testimony before Congress (‘Letter from Birmingham Jail’), taking the country by storm. While his letter was only addressed to the clergymen, it is safe to assume that King had intent on the public eventually reading his letter, considering his position within the Civil Rights movement, use of persuasive rhetorical language, and hard-hitting debates on the justification of law. With this addressed, his audience was truly the population of the United States, especially Birmingham, with a focus on those who withheld and complied with the oppression of African American citizens, even if not intentionally. This audience is rhetorical as the social and political ideologies of the American people fuel democracy and are able to change the system around them through collective effort. His writing is respectful and educated, if not naturally, to invalidate the use of his race against him by the largely prejudiced audience. It’s important to note that his initial readers/supporters greatly impacted the scope of his audience, spreading the letter through handouts, flyers, and press, in the hopes that others would be impacted for the better by the weight of the exigence at hand. His audience ranged between those who his message empowered, a radical positive force, and those who disagreed, made up of southern states, extremist groups, and the majority of American citizens stuck in their racial prejudices. Despite his support, Martin Luther’s audience is one of the largest constraints in his rhetorical situation. 

The constraints surrounding Martin Luther King’s rhetorical situation include the audience, the rhetorical exigence of the situation he is responding to, Dr. King himself, and the medium, all of which are deeply connected. Firstly, and most daunting, is the constraint of the letter’s audience. Initially, the eight Birmingham clergymen are the audience and while they were not overtly racist, King uses rhetoric meant to have them understand his urgency. As mentioned before, the social and political ideologies in America surrounding racial equity at this time, specifically in Birmingham, were extremely poor. While his supporters nation-wide were avid, determined, and hopeful, they were challenged by the opposing, vastly white population, comfortable in their segregated establishments and racist ideologies who would certainly weaponize his viewpoints. Not only was this a social division, but those who opposed King were reinforced by the respective legislature that sought to burden him. Despite his opposition, however, the letter is truly addressed to those who were not against King, but did not understand the urgency of his movement. The letter goes on to explain his choice to act directly and nonviolently, stating, “For years now I have heard the word ‘wait.’ It rings in the ear of every Negro with a piercing familiarity. This ‘wait’ has almost always meant ‘never’ (King 2). King chose to write this for a reason; to resonate with those who were not his enemies but who held back the movement through compliance. It was important for King to address this audience as their support would ultimately make the largest difference in the movement. The biases of the audience go hand in hand with the rhetorical exigence of this letter, another large constraint in the effectiveness of his message. The continuous mistreatment of African Americans for over a century was, at last, deeply questioned and challenged nationwide with the growing popularity of the Civil Rights movement, and the topic of equality for all had divided the country. All of this accumulates into an unwavering social constraint placed on Martin Luther King’s rhetorical text. To minimize the possibility of being deemed invalid due to his race, he must choose what he states and how he states it very precisely which correlates to the constraints Martin Luther himself has on his rhetorical situation. 

As a black man and pacifist-forward figurehead of the Civil Rights movement, the way Martin Luther is perceived is mostly dictated by preconceived biases and is rampant, widespread, and polarized. 

                Martin Luther in Birmingham Jail, The Atlantic

Furthermore, exterior events regarding the movement could ultimately reflect on his influence and polarize the audience further. Greater importance is placed on his tone, choice of words, choice of argument, and credibility, for better or for worse, and he must carefully make rhetorical decisions, not only because of his race. At this time, he is representative of the Black American population and the Civil Rights Movement as a whole– he is Martin Luther King Jr., and while this is a powerful position to occupy, the constraints imposed are just as dominant. Ultimately, he effectively tackles societal constraints, whether it be audience bias, historical racism, or how he is viewed by using the power of his rhetoric to his advantage. King spins the constraining pressure to properly represent the movement on its head, using his rhetoric to uplift the underprivileged and leave no room in his language for criticism, proven by the continuous adoption of his messages by the public. 

Lastly, King is constrained by his medium. A letter, as a medium, is constraining as there is one definitive original copy, it is addressed to a small specific group, and since it cannot be directly broadcasted widely, opposed to television or radio, it must be printed or passed along analogically. Whether this be by newspaper, flyers, or restated by another in speech, the spread of information is slower and potentially more controllable. The letter was written April third, 1963, it was published for the public in June of the same year, a slower spread than a nationwide address on television or radio. Additionally, personable elements such as tone, inflection, and overall vindication behind the letter are left to be determined by the rhetorical language. There may have been advantages to broadcasting this message similarly to his “I Have a Dream” speech, which touched America deeply, due potentially to the accessible, instantaneous, and widespread coverage in American media. He was able to further interact with the audience; they were able to hear his voice, listen to the intended tone behind his words, see his face, and study his demeanor in the face of adversary. However, this constraint did not ultimately halt the spread of King’s message nation-wide, as it became a persuasive landmark of the civil rights movement, likely due to both his impactful position and persuasive use of rhetoric. 

To truly understand the effectiveness of this letter, one must rhetorically analyse the contents. Martin Luther utilizes powerful rhetoric to define his exigence. He begins strongly by explaining why he is in Birmingham in the first place, stating, “So I am here…because we were invited here. I am here because I have basic organizational ties here” (King 1), after describing his involvement in the Southern Christian Leadership Conference as president. He goes on to add; “I am in Birmingham because injustice is here” (King 1). At the time, Birmingham was one of the harshest places to live in America for African Americans; white supremacy groups would set off bombs to instill fear in the black community and withhold racial integration, and peaceful protests and sit-ins were met with unjustifiable police violence, in addition to the suffocating social qualms surrounding the black community (Eskew). Consequently, Birmingham became the core of the Civil Rights movement, pumping the life-blood of social change into the rest of the country. Being nearly symbolic, King being held prisoner in Birmingham, the most polar racial arena of the United States, made his rhetoric more effective. It elucidated the exigence behind his letter as his presented rationale behind his arrest only made unjust laws appear more asinine and questionable by relation. Martin Luther King then goes on to make an analogy to the Bible, portraying Apostle Paul’s proliferation of the gospel of Jesus Christ in parallel to his own efforts, stating, “I too am compelled to carry the gospel of freedom beyond my particular hometown” (1). These encompass his exigence, at its most simple and precise, and validify the importance behind transforming the country in a positive way. 

The rhetorical choices referenced above are riddled with pathos, also known as language utilized to persuade the audience emotionally. Not only does he use pathos to humanize himself, but he also uses it to humanize his immediate audience, the eight clergymen. He opens with an explanation to his response, stating, “Seldom, if ever, do I pause to answer criticism of my work and ideas…But since I feel that you are men of genuine good will and your criticisms are sincerely set forth, I would like to answer your statement in what I hope will be patient and reasonable terms”(King 1). By addressing his respect for the clergymen, feigned or not, he is acknowledging the effectiveness of respect to those in power, whether they may or may not deserve it. King’s decision to compare his efforts to those of biblical figures with shared intent was a deliberate attempt to find common ground with his initial readers, the eight religious Birmingham clergymen, through the faith of a shared religion. His mention of involvement and leadership within a Christian civil rights organization, strength of religious analogy, and general politeness are effective rhetorical choices used to shape how he is perceived despite his critical response, racial setbacks, and arrest: a relatable man of faith, rationale, and initiative. 

Martin Luther King’s Letter From Birmingham Jail is undeniably effective at responding to the rhetorical situation at hand. While there were consistent and impactful efforts made by various groups for equality throughout the civil rights era, the proximity between the public release of the letter, found nation-wide by late 1963, and the passing of the Civil Rights Act in early July 1964 shows the direct impact the letter had on social attitudes following its publicization. The law was written in 1962, but the powerful response pushed the courts to finalize their decision. This period of quiet speculation over the law illuminates the national divide in opinion over the matter, one which King helped persuade positively. To summarize, Martin Luther King’s rhetoric is effective and ultimately changed the course of the Civil Rights movement for the better.                 

Works Cited

Bitzer, Lloyd F. “The Rhetorical Situation.” Philosophy & Rhetoric, vol. 1, no. 1, Penn State University Press, 1968, pp. 1–14, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40236733.

Glenn Eskew, “Bombingham: Black Protest in Postwar Birmingham, Alabama”, 1997

Jr., Martin Luther King. “Martin Luther King Jr.’s ‘Letter from Birmingham Jail’.” The Atlantic, Atlantic Media Company, 29 Jan. 2021, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/02/letter-from-a-birmingham-jail/552461/. 

“‘Letter from Birmingham Jail.’” The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute, 29 May 2019, https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/letter-birmingham-jail.